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The metals of antiquity

There are the seven metals which humans had identified and found use for in prehistoric times: gold, silver, copper, tin, lead, iron, and mercury. These seven are the metals from which the modern world was forged; until the discovery of antimony in the 9th century, and arsenic in the 13th (both now classified as metalloids), these were the only known elemental metals, compared to approximately 90 known today.

Melting point of Silver: 961 °C (1763 °F)

Extraction:

While all the metals of antiquity but tin and lead occur natively, only gold and silver are commonly found as the native metal.

Rarity:

Silver is 65th (70ppb)

The practice of alchemy in the Western world, based on a Hellenistic and Babylonian approach to planetary astronomy, often ascribed a symbolic association between the seven then-known celestial bodies and the metals known to the Greeks and Babylonians during antiquity. Additionally, some alchemists and astrologers believed there was an association, sometimes called a rulership, between days of the week, the alchemical metals, and the planets that were said to hold "dominion" over them

Silver denoted planet : Moon

Silver denoted day : Monday

Its purity is typically measured on a per-mille basis; a 94%-pure alloy is described as "0.940 fine". As one of the seven metals of antiquity, silver has had an enduring role in most human cultures.

Other than in currency and as an investment medium (coins and bullion), silver is used in solar panels, water filtration, jewellery, ornaments, high-value tableware and utensils (hence the term "silverware"), in electrical contacts and conductors, in specialized mirrors, window coatings, in catalysis of chemical reactions, as a colorant in stained glass, and in specialized confectionery.

Its compounds are used in photographic and X-ray film. Dilute solutions of silver nitrate and other silver compounds are used as disinfectants and microbiocides (oligodynamic effect), added to bandages, wound-dressings, catheters, and other medical instruments.

Silver is a relatively soft and extremely ductile and malleable transition metal, though it is slightly less malleable than gold. Silver crystallizes in a face-centered cubic lattice with bulk coordination number 12, where only the single 5s electron is delocalized, similarly to copper and gold.

Unlike metals with incomplete d-shells, metallic bonds in silver are lacking a covalent character and are relatively weak. This observation explains the low hardness and high ductility of single crystals of silver.

Silver has a brilliant, white, metallic luster that can take a high polish, and which is so characteristic that the name of the metal itself has become a colour name.

Unlike copper and gold, the energy required to excite an electron from the filled d band to the s-p conduction band in silver is large enough (around 385 kJ/mol) that it no longer corresponds to absorption in the visible region of the spectrum, but rather in the ultraviolet; hence silver is not a coloured metal.

Protected silver has greater optical reflectivity than aluminium at all wavelengths longer than ~450 nm. At wavelengths shorter than 450 nm, silver's reflectivity is inferior to that of aluminium and drops to zero near 310 nm

Very high electrical and thermal conductivity are common to the elements in group 11, because their single s electron is free and does not interact with the filled d subshell, as such interactions (which occur in the preceding transition metals) lower electron mobility.

The thermal conductivity of silver is among the highest of all materials, although the thermal conductivity of carbon (in the diamond allotrope) and superfluid helium-4 are higher. The electrical conductivity of silver is the highest of all metals, greater even than copper.

Silver also has the lowest contact resistance of any metal. Silver is rarely used for its electrical conductivity, due to its high cost, although an exception is in radio-frequency engineering, particularly at VHF and higher frequencies where silver plating improves electrical conductivity

because those currents tend to flow on the surface of conductors rather than through the interior.

During World War II in the US, 13540 tons of silver were used for the electromagnets in calutrons for enriching uranium, mainly because of the wartime shortage of copper.

Silver readily forms alloys with copper, gold, and zinc. Zinc-silver alloys with low zinc concentration may be considered as face-centred cubic solid solutions of zinc in silver, as the structure of the silver is largely unchanged while the electron concentration rises as more zinc is added. Increasing the electron concentration further leads to body-centred cubic (electron concentration 1.5), complex cubic (1.615), and hexagonal close-packed phases (1.75).

Naturally occurring silver (47Ag) is composed of the two stable isotopes 107Ag and 109Ag in almost equal proportions, with 107Ag being slightly more abundant (51.839% natural abundance). Twenty-eight radioisotopes have been characterized with the most stable being 105Ag with a half-life of 41.29 days, 111Ag with a half-life of 7.45 days, and 112Ag with a half-life of 3.13 hours.

The discoverers suggest that the coalescence and differentiation of iron-cored small planets may have occurred 10 million years after a nucleosynthetic event. 107Pd versus 107Ag correlations observed in bodies, which have clearly been melted since the accretion of the Solar System, must reflect the presence of live short-lived nuclides in the early Solar System.

Silver (Ag) has an electron configuration of [Kr] 4d105s1. The element is much more stable and has a lower energy when the 4d orbital is filled, so one electron is placed there, rather than in the 5s orbital. When it is ionized, the electron is removed from the outermost shell, which is the 5s orbital

Silver (Ag) belongs to group 11 of d-block and its ground state electronic configuration is 4d10 5s1. It shows an oxidation state of +2 in its compounds like AgO and AgF2 in which its electronic configuration is d9 so it is a transition element.

Next to gold, silver is the most malleable and ductile metal known. It is harder than gold but softer than copper. This softness limits its use, even for coinage, unless it is alloyed with about 10% copper. When alloyed with 7.5% copper, it is known as sterling silver.

Silver crystallizes in face centered cubic unit cell. Each side of this unit cell has a length of 400 pm. Calculate the radius of the silver atom. (Assume the atoms just touch each other on the diagonal across the face out of the unit cell. That is each face atom is touching the four corner atoms).

Silver has the highest electrical and thermal conductivities of all the contact materials. This makes it ideal for handling high electrical currents. Fine silver is defined as having greater than 99.9% purity. It has only moderate wear resistance, with a hardness of only 75-200 HV, similar to soft gold.

Silver is not a chemically active metal; however nitric acid and hot concentrated sulfuric acid will react with it.

Silver can be obtained from pure deposits as well as from silver ores such as horn silver and argentite. It can also be obtained as a by-product along with deposits of ores containing gold, copper, or lead.

Silver does not oxidize in air; however it reacts with hydrogen sulfide in the air, causing the metal to tarnish due to the formation of silver sulfide. Hence silver products require regular cleaning. Silver is stable in water.

We use the discrete dipole approximation to investigate the electromagnetic fields induced by optical excitation of localized surface plasmon resonances of silver nanoparticles, including monomers and dimers, with emphasis on what size, shape, and arrangement leads to the largest local electric field (E-field) enhancement near the particle surfaces.

The results are used to determine what conditions are most favorable for producing enhancements large enough to observe single molecule surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy. Most of the calculations refer to triangular prisms, which exhibit distinct dipole and quadrupole resonances that can easily be controlled by varying particle size.

In addition, for the dimer calculations we study the influence of dimer separation and orientation, especially for dimers that are separated by a few nanometers. We find that the largest |E|2 values for dimers are about a factor of 10 larger than those for all the monomers examined. For all particles and particle orientations, the plasmon resonances which lead to the largest E-fields are those with the longest wavelength dipolar excitation.

The spacing of the particles in the dimer plays a crucial role, and we find that the spacing needed to achieve a given |E|2 is proportional to nanoparticle size for particles below 100 nm in size. Particle shape and curvature are of lesser importance, with a head to tail configuration of two triangles giving enhanced fields comparable to head to head, or rounded head to tail. The largest |E|2 values we have calculated for spacings of 2 nm or more is ∼105.

Silver does not react with air, even at red heat, and thus was considered by alchemists as a noble metal, along with gold. Its reactivity is intermediate between that of copper (which forms copper(I) oxide when heated in air to red heat) and gold.

Like copper, silver reacts with sulfur and its compounds; in their presence, silver tarnishes in air to form the black silver sulfide (copper forms the green sulfate instead, while gold does not react). Unlike copper, silver will not react with the halogens, with the exception of fluorine gas, with which it forms the difluoride.

While silver is not attacked by non-oxidizing acids, the metal dissolves readily in hot concentrated sulfuric acid, as well as dilute or concentrated nitric acid. In the presence of air, and especially in the presence of hydrogen peroxide, silver dissolves readily in aqueous solutions of cyanide.[26]

The three main forms of deterioration in historical silver artifacts are tarnishing, formation of silver chloride due to long-term immersion in salt water, as well as reaction with nitrate ions or oxygen.

Fresh silver chloride is pale yellow, becoming purplish on exposure to light; it projects slightly from the surface of the artifact or coin.

Silver metal is attacked by strong oxidizers such as potassium permanganate

Silver fulminate, a powerful, touch-sensitive explosive used in percussion caps, is made by reaction of silver metal with nitric acid in the presence of ethanol. Other dangerously explosive silver compounds are silver azide, formed by reaction of silver nitrate with sodium azide, and silver acetylide, formed when silver reacts with acetylene gas in ammonia solution. In its most characteristic reaction, silver azide decomposes explosively, releasing nitrogen gas: given the photosensitivity of silver salts, this behaviour may be induced by shining a light on its crystals.

The word "silver" appears in Old English in various spellings, such as seolfor and siolfor. It is cognate with Old High German silabar; Gothic silubr; or Old Norse silfr, all ultimately deriving from Proto-Germanic *silubra. The Balto-Slavic words for silver are rather similar to the Germanic ones (e.g. Russian серебро [serebró], Polish srebro, Lithuanian sidãbras), as is the Celtiberian form silabur. They may have a common Indo-European origin, although their morphology rather suggest a non-Indo-European Wanderwort. Some scholars have thus proposed a Paleo-Hispanic origin, pointing to the Basque form zilharr as an evidence.

The chemical symbol Ag is from the Latin word for "silver", argentum (compare Ancient Greek ἄργυρος, árgyros), from the Proto-Indo-European root *h₂erǵ- (formerly reconstructed as *arǵ-), meaning "white" or "shining". This was the usual Proto-Indo-European word for the metal, whose reflexes are missing in Germanic and Balto-Slavic.

Silver was one of the seven metals of antiquity that were known to prehistoric humans and whose discovery is thus lost to history. In particular, the three metals of group 11, copper, silver, and gold, occur in the elemental form in nature and were probably used as the first primitive forms of money as opposed to simple bartering. However, unlike copper, silver did not lead to the growth of metallurgy on account of its low structural strength, and was more often used ornamentally or as money.

Since silver is more reactive than gold, supplies of native silver were much more limited than those of gold. For example, silver was more expensive than gold in Egypt until around the fifteenth century BC: the Egyptians are thought to have separated gold from silver by heating the metals with salt, and then reducing the silver chloride produced to the metal.